Bureaucratic Politics and Intelligence in the Falklands War 1982 Essay Example for Free

Bureaucratic Politics and Intelligence in the Falklands War 1982 Essay The Farklands war began on Friday, 2 April 1982. The fight was between Argentina and the United Kingdom (UK). The main dispute was over Farklands Islands and South Georgia and the other Islands known as South Sandwich. The fatalities of the violence included many people such as left-wing activists, trade unionists, students and even journalists. The Farkland Island was well known for its abundant supply of oil within its territorial waters. Argentina had already occupied the islands which was a British colony. Their main aim was to relocate attention from economical and social problems at that particular time (Grant, 2000, 3). Therefore, it was a political contrive by the Argentine political government to break away from its own state of social conflicts. Jorge Rafael Videla’s military dictatorship as part of the Operation Condor carried out the state terrorism. The Farklands conflict marked the great use of modern weapon systems under the military theorists. All the main elements of military theory came into practice at that period. This included several elements such as public enthusiasm, national determination, opportunity and miscalculation. Additionally, the war was itself an inquisitive combination of modern high-tech warfare and low-tech. The British forces were much outnumbered on the war ground. They never had the exact air true covers and only what they had was the aircraft that came with the task force. The bureaucratic politics played a major role in ensuring the victory of the British during the Farklands war. For instance, four factors are said to have neccessitated the British success. This includes, effective and sufficient training of the military, good leadership by the political leaders who gave them a lot of support, courage in the army and above all the Britain’s closest supporter, the United States. The endorsement of the United State’s policy towards the Farklands conflict provides an adequate evidence of how bureaucratic politics was involved during the war. The proper response of the above mentioned policy was properly constituted and played at the highest levels of the Reagan administration. The process was mainly confined entirely to the executive branch which was by that time dominated by the conformist view of the America’s place in the whole world. On the other hand, Graham T. Allison’s bureaucratic politics did not support the acceptance of the foreign policy goals. The president Reagan’s leadership style, the relationship of assorted personalities, conflicting interpretations of national interest and the opposing bureaucratic imperatives played a main role in creating a situation that was being characterized by disperse power and multiple actions in the war (Gustafson, 1998, 14). During the 1982 Falklands war, the Thatcher government attempted to assume an isolated and remote colony in the South Atlantic as British sovereign territory was very important in ensuring the mobilization of the media and also the support for the war recovery campaign. The re-imaginative process also included the role of the rural imagery. Additionally, the government-imposed censorship enhanced positive reporting of the war campaign. During the Falklands war, there were some negotiations between the two sides to avoid war but an agreement was never reached. This means that the use of diplomacy had failed in the Falklands Islands (Mauro, nd, 3). The main reason that constituted to this disagreement is that, there was a lot of misconstruction between the British and the Argentines. For instance, The Argentines never believed that the British would retaliate and on the other hand, the British always fought to believe that Argentina wanted a peaceful solution. Regarding the president’s personalities they were required to remain and appear very strong in terms of the diplomatic principles. The diplomatic solution was however not reached in the Falklands due to the political self-preservation, practical obstructions and diplomatic principle that were being practiced by the political leaders. During that time of war, the Argentina’s rulers were under the General Galtieri, a murderous, unpopular military junta. When they invaded the Falklands islands, they decided to make themselves less unpopular at home with the forces of Argentine prejudice behind them. This enabled them to be aware of all what was happening in the world around them and support Galtieri invasion and occupation. Margaret Thatcher together with her government in Britain was at that particular time very unpopular at home too. As a result of 1982 defeat, a vicious and incompetent dictatorship was overthrown in Argentina and then democracy was restored back (Robert, 1988, 428). The army was subjected to a civilian rule and was also transformed into modern professional institutions that were devoted to regional integration and peace. The Role of Intelligence in Explaining the War of Falklands 1982. The Britain intelligence professionals disregarded signs of political unrest and particular military intelligence communications from Argentina. As a result of their ignorance, they were vulnerable to surprise attacks. Another factor that contributed to the acceleration of the Falkland conflict was the neglected United State diplomatic efforts and reactions. The British were enjoying the privilege to access the U. S intelligence in their policy making. Intelligence was only considered to be the main determining factor in making of foreign policy that was being used during the war (Justin, 2007, 6). Application of intelligence enabled the successful conduct of the military operations of the Britain and the Argentina government. Domestic ratification of international agreement which seemed so much peculiar was applied during the Farkland war. In win-set game theory, the agreement was only possible if those win-sets overlaps and the larger each win-set and more probably they overlap. However, the smaller the win-sets, the more the risk those negotiations between the parties will finally break down. This was the same case that applied during the prolonged pre-war Anglo-Argentine conciliation over the Farklands islands. Tentative agreements were opposed in one capital or the other. This was mainly caused by political reasons when it became vivid that the earlier British and Argentine win-sets did not overlap at. As a result, the war became virtually inevitable. The negotiations were interpreted in terms of a bureaucratic politics model of level 11 politicking The armed forces of Britain were much closer to those of the United States and their air forces worked together during the Falklands war. The Britain also had well collaboration of weapons programme which was very strong in the nuclear area (Sean, 2007, 9). Additionally, there was much co-operation on human intelligence between Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Britain’s Secret Intelligence service (SIS). The intelligence services included satellite photos, unmanned aerial vehicles and other defense intelligence staff. Therefore, the Britain found it much easier to re-conquer Falklands because of the American intelligence. The Argentines used up-to date intelligence together with their detailed skills and knowledge. For instance, the Argentine ships were sailing to and around the Falkland Islands testing the Argentine defenses. During the Falklands conflict, France seemed to be very helpful to the Britain in support of intelligence. For instance, President Mitterrand instructed the French intelligence services to help the Britain track the movements of an Argentine ship that sailed close to France and Spain and was suspected of trying to get French-made military hardware. Additionally, the selective discharges of French signals intelligence were of great benefit to the Britain during the Falklands war. References Gustafson, L 1988, The Sovereignty Dispute over the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, Oxford University Press, New York Justin, V 2007, Argentina and Britain: the lessons of war, viewed 5 August 2010 from http://www. opendemocracy. net/conflict-falklands_malvinas/lessons_vogler_4495. jsp Mauro, J nd, The Falklands Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake forest University, viewed on 5 August 2010 from http://www. historymatters. appstate. edu/documents/falklandislandswar_000. pdf Robert, D 1988, Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-level Game. International Organization, Vol. 42, No. 3, p. 427-460. Viewed 5 August 2010 from http://portal. uam. es/portal/page/portal/UAM_ORGANIZATIVO/Departamentos/CienciaPoliticaRelacionesInternacionales/personal/fernando_rodrigo/pagina_personal_fernando_rodrigo/teoria_relaciones_inter/Textos/Putnam-%20The%20Logic%20of%20Two-Level%20Games. pdf Sean, M 2007, Some Reflections on the Falklands War and the Kitsch-left Now Viewed on 5 August 2010 from http://www. workersliberty. org/node/8076 Grant, C 2000, Intimate Relations, viewed 5 August 2010 from http://www. cer. org. uk/pdf/cerwp4. pdf

Risk Factors Affecting Hispanic Domestic Violence Essay -- Masculinity,

Masculinities Patriarchy ideology is embedded in the predominantly Latin American structure of machismo of supremacy over females (Alcalde, 2011). There are hegemonic methods of masculinity that stress male authority, magisterial and honor concerning females to some males, but it is an unusual overstated and exaggerated in male masculinities (Alcalde, 2011: 465). In contrast, there are many who do not advocate violence, and they seek to educate others on the importance of not using violence towards women. They see masculinity as the opposite of violent, and they use masculinity to protect women (Alcalde, 2011: 465). It is strong bond which protects the family (Alcalde, 2011: 465). Society has transformed with the ages and Mexican and Mexican American fathers have adapted to different, more caring roles in their family (Saracho and Spodek, 2008: 81). As a matter of fact, many fathers have become their kids’ developmental caretakers and dynamic educators (Saracho and Spodek, 2008: 81). Researchers have written papers portraying Mexican and Mexican American fathers as imperceptible, emotionless, distant and not nurturing (Saracho and Spodek, 2008: 81). Mexican and Mexican American, and redefine machismo as positive attributes which includes courage, kindness, and patience (Saracho and Spodek, 2008: 81). Today men are more willing to switc h gender roles becoming good role models, and they help with household tasks and their children. In the case study of Emiliano Diaz de Leon, positive masculinity turned his life around; furthermore, the role models he met at age 15 changed him from an abusive, disdainful young man into a positive role model (Aker, 2013) As a boy, he nothing but negative male role models and the change came from su... ...roblem Drinking Among Male Mexican and Central American Immigrant Laborers A Review of the Literature. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 29(4), 413-455. Perilla, J. L. (1999). Domestic violence as a human rights issue: The case of immigrant Latinos. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 21(2), 107-133. Straus, M. A. (1987). The Conflict Tactics Scales and its critics: an evaluation and new data on validity and reliability. Straus, M. A., & Yllo, K. (1990). Patriarchy and violence against wives: The impact of structural and normative factors. Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in, 8(145), 383-399. Worby, P. A., & Organista, K. C. (2007). Alcohol use and problem drinking among male Mexican and Central American immigrant laborers: A review of the literature. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 29(4), 413-455.

Indian Marxist Critique Of Law And Justice Essays and Term Papers Essay

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Queen Cleopatra VII Last Pharaoh of Egypt

The last pharaoh of Egypt, Cleopatra VII (69–30 BCE, ruled 51–30 BCE), is among the most recognized of any Egyptian pharaoh by the general public, and yet most of what we 21st-century people know of her are rumors, speculation, propaganda, and gossip. The last of the Ptolemies, she was not a seductress, she did not arrive at Caesars palace wrapped in a carpet, she did not charm men into losing their judgment, she did not die at the bite of an asp, she was not stunningly beautiful. No, Cleopatra was a diplomat, a skilled naval commander, an expert royal administrator, an orator fluent in several languages (among them Parthian, Ethiopian, and the languages of the Hebrews, Arabs, Syrians, and Medes), persuasive and intelligent, and a published medical authority. And when she became pharaoh, Egypt had been under the thumb of Rome for fifty years. Despite her efforts to preserve her country as an independent state or at least a powerful ally, at her death, Egypt became Aegyptus, reduced after 5,000 years to a Roman province. Birth and Family Cleopatra VII was born in early 69 BCE, the second of five children of Ptolemy XII (117–51 BCE), a weak king who called himself the New Dionysos but was known in Rome and Egypt as the Flute Player. The Ptolemaic dynasty was already in shambles when Ptolemy XII was born, and his predecessor Ptolemy XI (died 80 BCE) came to power only with the interference of the Roman Empire under the dictator L. Cornelius Sulla, the first of the Romans to systematically control the destiny of the kingdoms bordering Rome. Cleopatras mother was probably a member of the Egyptian priestly family of Ptah, and if so she was three-quarters Macedonian and one-quarter Egyptian, tracing her ancestry back to two companions of Alexander the Great—the original Ptolemy I and Seleukos I. Her siblings included Berenike IV (who ruled Egypt in the absence of her father but was killed on his return), Arsinoà « IV (Queen of Cyprus and exiled to Ephesos, killed at Cleopatras request), and Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV (both of whom ruled jointly with Cleopatra VII for a time and were killed for her). Becoming Queen In 58 BCE, Cleopatras father Ptolemy XII fled to Rome to escape his angry people in the face of a declining economy and the dawning perception that he was a puppet of Rome. His daughter Berenike IV seized the throne in his absence, but by 55 BCE, Rome (including a young Marcus Antonius, or Mark Antony) reinstalled him, and executed Berenike, making Cleopatra the next in line for the throne. Ptolemy XII died in 51 BCE, and Cleopatra was put on the throne jointly with her brother Ptolemy XIII because there was significant opposition to a woman ruling on her own. Civil war broke about between them, and when Julius Caesar arrived for a visit in 48 BCE it was still ongoing. Caesar spent the winter of 48–47 settling the war and killing off Ptolemy the XIII; he left in the spring after putting Cleopatra on the throne alone. That summer she bore a son she named Caesarion and claimed he was Caesars. She went to Rome in 46 BCE and obtained legal recognition as an allied monarch. Her next visit to Rome came in 44 BCE when Caesar was assassinated, and she attempted to make Caesarion his heir. Alliance with Rome Both political factions at Rome—the assassins of Julius Caesar (Brutus and Cassius) and his avengers (Octavian, Mark Anthony, and Lepidus)—lobbied for her support. She eventually sided with Octavians group. After Octavian took power in Rome, Anthony was named Triumvir of the eastern provinces including Egypt. He began a policy of expanding Cleopatras possessions in the Levant, Asia Minor, and the Aegean. He came to Egypt the winter of 41–40; she bore twins in the spring. Anthony married Octavia instead, and for the next three years, there is almost no information about Cleopatras life in the historical record. Somehow she ran her kingdom and raised her three Roman children, without direct Roman influence. Anthony returned east from Rome in 36 BCE to make an ill-fated attempt to gain Parthia for Rome, and Cleopatra went with him and came home pregnant with her fourth child. The expedition was funded by Cleopatra but it was a disaster, and in disgrace, Mark Anthony returned to Alexandria. He never went back to Rome. In 34, Cleopatras control over the territories that had been claimed by Anthony for her was formalized and her children were designated as rulers of those regions. End of a Dynasty Rome led by Octavian began to see Mark Anthony as a rival. Anthony sent his wife home and a propaganda war about who was Caesars true heir (Octavian or Caesarion) erupted. Octavian declared war on Cleopatra in 32 BC; an engagement with Cleopatras fleet took place off Actium in September of 31. She recognized that if she and her ships stayed in Actium Alexandria would soon be in trouble, so she and Mark Anthony went home. Back in Egypt, she made futile attempts to flee to India and set Caesarion on the throne. Mark Anthony was suicidal, and negotiations between Octavian and Cleopatra failed. Octavian invaded Egypt in summer of 30 BCE. She tricked Mark Anthony into suicide and then recognizing that Octavian was going to put her on exhibition as a captured leader, committed suicide herself. Following Cleopatra After Cleopatras death, her son ruled for a few days, but Rome under Octavian (renamed Augustus) made Egypt a province. The Macedonian/Greek Ptolemies had ruled Egypt from the time of the death of Alexander, in 323 BCE. After two centuries power shifted, and during the reigns of the later Ptolemies Rome became the hungry guardian of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Only tribute paid to the Romans kept them from taking over. With Cleopatras death, the rule of Egypt finally passed to the Romans. Although her son may have held nominal power for a few days beyond Cleopatras suicide, she was the last, effectively ruling pharaoh. Sources: Chauveau M. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society Under the Ptolemies. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.Chaveau M, editor. 2002. Cleopatra: Beyond the Myth. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Roller DW. 2010. Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press.